Organisation Behaviour

Option 3: Evaluate the statement that ‘organisational structure reflects and reinforces an unrealistic view of human rationality (Knights & Willmott, 2007)’. Introduction: Different authors have different definition toward organizational structure. Mintzberg (1979) defines the organization structure is defined as ‘The sum total of the ways in which it divides its labour into distinct task and then achieves coordination between them’ (Mintzberg, 1979, p. cited in Knights and Willmott, 2007, p. 197). In simple words, organizational structure is talking about the structure of an organization, how a company categorise their workers or management to achieve their goals. Basically, organizational structure is talking about the management system that include organic and mechanistic management system. In an organization, there will be a lot of matters happened because of the organization structure.Hence, people keep discover different management structure to assist in organizational structure like Taylor and Ford that influence the organization structure by using scientific method to classified the work of an organization and control the achievement of the organization (Fayol, 1949; Taylor, 1911cited in Singh, 2009). Lewin (1958) cited in Burnes (1996) provided that the planned model that designed for the organizational change is the best model.However, is there any the best structure for organization? When we treat one structure as the best structure for organization, we must consider the factors that will make the structure no longer applicable. Environment is the important influences that we cannot ignore about. The unstable of environment led the organization structure keep on changing. One of the changes in the structure of organizational was from mechanistic management system to organic management system.Mechanistic and organic of organizational structure are two formally form of management system that applied in organizational structure (Burns and Stalker, 1961). As what Kulmala and Uusi-Rauva (2005) claims that competition was changing from firm level to network level, which means from centralisation to decentralisation. Changing Of Environment More than 2,000 years ago the Greek philosopher Heraclitus(536-470 BC) claims that everything was continuous keep on changing and there was nothing permanent (Smith, 2011).Organizational structure is also the same, there are no the best structure for an organization since the environment is keep on changing. ‘‘There is no one best way to organize’’ and ‘‘any ways of organizing are not equally effective’’ (Galbraith, 1973 cited in Singh, 2009, p. 954). Environment and organization are interdependent, they depend on each other between an organization (pugh et al. 1963 cited in Child, n. d. ). Burns and Stalker (1961) cited in Singh (2009) proposed that appropriate organizational structure depends on environmental factors.Co ulson-Thomas (1991) cited in Strachan (1996) argues that business organizational is increasingly face unprecedented change in social, economic, political and business environment. Burn and Stalker (1961) cited in McMillan (n. d. ) claims that an organization must match and follow with the rate of change in its environment if the organization want to reach a maximum performance or achieve their goals. The performance of an organization depend on how they construct their structure to align with the environment (Mintzberg, 1979 cited in Nandakumar , Ghobadian and O’Regan, 2010).An example that shows the change of technology that led to the changes of organizational structure, the manner of hardware and software development resulted in architectures evolving over time, at the same time organization structures developed special forms to suit and fit their specific environmental and strategic requirements (Mukherji, 2002). An effective structure or strategy can promotes competitive advantage to strengthen an organization performance (Oosthuizen, 1997 cited in Nandakumar , Ghobadian and O’Regan, 2010 ) .Besides, there are a wide range of structures given to an organization to choose whether which structure is appropriate to them and can align to the environmental factors that they face, they can choose the most few effective structure mixed that fix to their different environmental problem faced since there are no one universal structure that applied by all organization (Singh, 2009). However, when environment is change again no matter due to technological or political factor, organization need to aware that whether their structure now is consists with the changing of the environment.If their structure is not the best in current environment, then they need to revise their structure again to get the most productive outcome. Otherwise, the change of environment may either lead to some benefit or harms to the organization. Thevenet (1988) cited in Soparnot (2011) believe that the change of organizational structure is always beneficial. However, Soparnot (2005) cited in Soparnot (2011) argued that the changes of structure can destabilize organization and it is risky and costly.In an organization, if they are manage according to hierarchy structure, there are different level of manager and different opinion towards the change of the organization exist, different people have their own idea, each will suggest different idea and this will wasting time and resources to test for it. Walston and Chou (2011) said that the greater the differences between hierarchical perceptions, the inefficiency of the organization change and effort.Therefore, there are no any best constant structure of organization, because the environment is keep on changing, what an organization can do is only keep on changing that align with the environmental changes. Mechanistic System Mechanistic management system is consist of hierarchic structure of control, authority , specialization , differentiation and centralized decision making (Burns and Stalker, 1961). Hierarchical structure is commonly carry out in an organizational chart form.Organizational chart show us the management structure or hierarchical structure, how the organization manage according to different department, or specialization. During the mid 20th century there was a trend for organizations to create huge corporate structures, often composed of many varied and different businesses, for instance, the Hanson Trust, Unilever, Trafalgar House, and GNK in the UK and General Electric in the USA (Mabey, Salaman and Storey, 2001 cited in McMillan, (n. . ). Hales and Rabey (2011) held that a good management is consists of specific job for specific person, clear role definitions for each job, clear job specification and so on. It is talking about mechanic system of organizational structure. In the hierarchical structure, decisions are made by top level and task are delegated to different department manager of middle level, and these managers will make sure the workers under them is kept in line with them (Hales and Rabey, 2011).Since that are not a teamwork which they do not share common interest but they need to do more than the person who make decision and thus make them do not have any motivation to do their best or produce the best idea. This may occur because everyone have different perceptions. As mentioned earlier, the greater difference between hierarchical perception, the inefficiency of the effort (Walston and Chou, 2011). When everyone have their own perception, but decision is not made by them, conflict will occur.Conflict usually occur in relation to decision and sometimes it may lead to threat (Beckhard and Dyer, 1983 cited in Frank et al. , 2011). Decision making of hierarchical structure is also a waste of time since there are different level in the organization, decision making need to go through from low to middle and the top, it take time and wast e of resources, when there are something happen between the level of authority, it need even more time than usual. Wang and Ahmed (2003) cited in Kulmala and Uusi-Rauva (2005) highlight organizational structure influence its decision making and the internal processes.Employees in an organization should not wait for manager comments or negotiations for organization sake (Kuitunen et al, 1999 cited in Kulmala and Uusi-Rauva, 2005). In order to reduce the conflict of decision making of the hierarchical structure and waste of time, the changes of this hierarchical structure is needed. Burns and Stalker (1961) highlight that in organic system, position in an organization is differentiated by the expertise, whoever have greater expertise can lead the team and he or she will have the best authority.For mechanistic system, people who control the organization is according to standardization of skill, it is control by the person who have undergone extensive training and socialization (Friedso n, 1970 cited in Abernethy and Stoelwinder, n. d. ). Burns and Stalker (1961) claims that the position of the leader is settled by consensus via voting in an organic system. When the position of the leader is agreed by voting, then it may consider fair because there are no any conflict of interest exist. However, for mechanistic system, position of the manager is the decision of the top level management.When the position of the leader is decided by the top level management people, there are inequality exists. Guy (1999) highlight that the increase of earnings inequality from the late 1970s until now is due to changes of organizational structure. When the decision is not reach the consensus of all but just solely based on the top level management, it seems like it is unfair. The top level may choose the one that is beneficial to him or her and promotes him or her to get higher position and this is not agreed by all. Organic SystemHence, Covin and Slevin(1990) cited in Altinay and Alt inay (2004) claims that organization often decentralize decision making authority, minimize the hierarchical structure and adopt free flow communication channels to make sure organization achieved higher performance. When talk about decentralization, actually it is talking about organic management system, Burns and Stalker(1961) said that organic management system is appropriate to the changing of environment, he describe organic management system as a network structure of control ,authority and communication, there are not alking about responsibilities of a person, but the responsible of the people in the network. Therefore, It is just like a team that achieve the same goals. However, the claimant that organization need to decentralize decision making was argued by Shields and Shields (1998) cited in Subramaniam and Mia (2001), said that not all managers accept the decentralization of organization structure because it will make outcomes of job unfavorable related such as low job sa tisfaction. For example, as what we have study now, we are choosing courses of education according to our interest.It is also the same as career, we will choose our job according to what we studied or what we like, if decentralize means that they are all working together without departmentalize, then we might need to do the job that we do not like and make us do not have the feeling of satisfaction when rushing for the work. Conclusion In conclusion, organizational structure is not fixed, it is not constant as all organization is using the same structure and monitor their work of organization.There will be no consensus on one particular structure of organization and thus make the organizational structure do not fixed. Actually, each structure will show their good and bad, when the structure is align with the change of environment or the structure is reach the consensus of all and thus achieve higher performance of organization, then this structure is consider as good. However, when the environment is change again , and people no longer agree on this structure, then this structure is no longer applicable , if this structure is insist in using, then it may bring harm to organization.Hence, there is no the best or the smartest structure for an organization (Mintzberg, 1979 cited in Wang and Ahmed, 2002). When the environment of the organization change, the structure of the organization also change according to the environment, this dynamism of the organization structure makes the organization do not have a fixed or constant strucuture (Martinsons & Martinsons, 1994 cited in Wang and Ahmed, 2002). No matter organic or mechanistic management system, as long as it is an effective structure that align with the environment, it will lead he organization to achieve superior performance. Organization structure do not fixed because mechanistic management system is applicable in some situation or organic management system is suitable in some situation or mixed of these two management system is necessary for some situation. In details, an organization can mixed the centralization and decentralization by apply both in their structure. Decentralization can motivate employees to enable them showing out their creative and innovative but not stop by top level manager.At the same time, some others part can be centralize to make sure employees follow the rules and regulation because some decision if freely make by employees on their own may create troublesome such as financing and investing decision. Hence, structure cannot fixed on whether it is centralization or decentralization (Buchanan and huczynski, 2010). Therefore, we cannot say that which structure is the best structure for organization because each of these structures play their own roles in different environmental changes. (2092 words) Bibliography: 1. Abernethy M. A. nd Stoelwinder, J. U. (n. d) â€Å"The relationship between organization structure and management control in hospitals: An elabora tion and test of Mintzberg’s professional bureaucracy model†, pp. 18-33. 2. Altinay, L. and Altinay, M. (2004) â€Å"The influence of organisational structure on entrepreneurial orientation and expansion performance†, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 16(6), pp. 334-344. 3. Burnes, B. (1996) â€Å"No such thing as †¦ a â€Å"one best way† to manage organizational change’, Management Decision, 34/10, pp. 11-18. 4. Burns, T. and Stalker, G.M. (1961) â€Å"The management of innovation†, London: Tavistock, pp. 103-108. 5. Child, J. (n. d) â€Å"Organizational strucuture, environment and performance: The role of strategic choice†, Sage Social Science Collections. 6. Frank, M. , Kessler, A. , Nose, L. , Suchy, D. (2011) â€Å"Conflicts in family firms: state of the art and perspectives for future research†, Journal of Family Business Management, 1(2), pp. 130-153. 7. Hales, S. and Rabey, G. (2011) â⠂¬Å"The frontline manager: fronting up to organisational change†, Industrial and Commercial Trainning, 43(6), pp. 368-376. 8. Knights, D. nd Willmott, H. (2007) Introducing organizational behaviour and management, South-Western Cengage Learning. 9. Kulmala, H. I. and Uusi-Rauva, E. (2005) â€Å"Network as a business environment: experiences from software industry†, Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, 10/3, pp. 169-178. 10. McMillan, E. (n. d. ) â€Å"Considering organization structure and design from a complexity paradigm perspective†, Open University. 11. Mukherji, A. (2002) â€Å"The evolution of information systems: their impact on organizations and structures†, Management Decision, 40/5, pp. 497-507. 12.Nandakumar, M. K. , Ghobadian, A. , O’Regan, N. (2010) â€Å"Business-level strategy and Performance: The moderating effects of environment and structure†, Management Decision, 48(6), pp. 907-939. 13. Singh, S. K. (2009) â⠂¬Å"Structuring organizations across industries in India†, Management Research News, 32(10), pp. 953-969. 14. Singh, S. K. (2009) â€Å"Structuring organizations across industries in India†, Management Research News, 32(10), pp. 953-969. 15. Smith, I. (2011) â€Å"Organisational quality and organisational change: Interconnecting paths to effectiveness†, Library Management, 32(1/2), pp. 11-128. 16. Strachan, P. A. (1996) â€Å"Managing transformational change: the learning organization and teamworking†, Team Performance Management: An International Journal, (2)2, pp. 32-40. 17. Subramaniam, N. and Mia, L. (2001) â€Å"The relation between decentralised structure, budgetary participation and organisational commitment: The moderating role of managers' value orientation towards innovation†, Accounting, Auditing ; Accountability Journal, 14(1), pp. 12-29. 18. Walston, S. and Chou, A. 2011) â€Å"CEO perceptions of organizational consensus and its impact on hospital restructuring outcomes†, Journal of Health Organization and Management, 25(2), pp. 176-194. 19. Wang, L. and Ahmed, P. K. (2002) â€Å"The Informal Structure: Hidden energies within the organization†, University of Wolverhampton, UK. 20. Guy, F. (1999) â€Å"Information technology, organization structure, and earnings inequality†, Birkbeck College, Malet St. 21. Buchanan D. A. and Huczynski, A. A. (2010) Organizational behaviour, Seventh edition, Pearson Education Limited. Organisation Behaviour Option 3: Evaluate the statement that ‘organisational structure reflects and reinforces an unrealistic view of human rationality (Knights & Willmott, 2007)’. Introduction: Different authors have different definition toward organizational structure. Mintzberg (1979) defines the organization structure is defined as ‘The sum total of the ways in which it divides its labour into distinct task and then achieves coordination between them’ (Mintzberg, 1979, p. cited in Knights and Willmott, 2007, p. 197). In simple words, organizational structure is talking about the structure of an organization, how a company categorise their workers or management to achieve their goals. Basically, organizational structure is talking about the management system that include organic and mechanistic management system. In an organization, there will be a lot of matters happened because of the organization structure.Hence, people keep discover different management structure to assist in organizational structure like Taylor and Ford that influence the organization structure by using scientific method to classified the work of an organization and control the achievement of the organization (Fayol, 1949; Taylor, 1911cited in Singh, 2009). Lewin (1958) cited in Burnes (1996) provided that the planned model that designed for the organizational change is the best model.However, is there any the best structure for organization? When we treat one structure as the best structure for organization, we must consider the factors that will make the structure no longer applicable. Environment is the important influences that we cannot ignore about. The unstable of environment led the organization structure keep on changing. One of the changes in the structure of organizational was from mechanistic management system to organic management system.Mechanistic and organic of organizational structure are two formally form of management system that applied in organizational structure (Burns and Stalker, 1961). As what Kulmala and Uusi-Rauva (2005) claims that competition was changing from firm level to network level, which means from centralisation to decentralisation. Changing Of Environment More than 2,000 years ago the Greek philosopher Heraclitus(536-470 BC) claims that everything was continuous keep on changing and there was nothing permanent (Smith, 2011).Organizational structure is also the same, there are no the best structure for an organization since the environment is keep on changing. ‘‘There is no one best way to organize’’ and ‘‘any ways of organizing are not equally effective’’ (Galbraith, 1973 cited in Singh, 2009, p. 954). Environment and organization are interdependent, they depend on each other between an organization (pugh et al. 1963 cited in Child, n. d. ). Burns and Stalker (1961) cited in Singh (2009) proposed that appropriate organizational structure depends on environmental factors.Co ulson-Thomas (1991) cited in Strachan (1996) argues that business organizational is increasingly face unprecedented change in social, economic, political and business environment. Burn and Stalker (1961) cited in McMillan (n. d. ) claims that an organization must match and follow with the rate of change in its environment if the organization want to reach a maximum performance or achieve their goals. The performance of an organization depend on how they construct their structure to align with the environment (Mintzberg, 1979 cited in Nandakumar , Ghobadian and O’Regan, 2010).An example that shows the change of technology that led to the changes of organizational structure, the manner of hardware and software development resulted in architectures evolving over time, at the same time organization structures developed special forms to suit and fit their specific environmental and strategic requirements (Mukherji, 2002). An effective structure or strategy can promotes competitive advantage to strengthen an organization performance (Oosthuizen, 1997 cited in Nandakumar , Ghobadian and O’Regan, 2010 ) .Besides, there are a wide range of structures given to an organization to choose whether which structure is appropriate to them and can align to the environmental factors that they face, they can choose the most few effective structure mixed that fix to their different environmental problem faced since there are no one universal structure that applied by all organization (Singh, 2009). However, when environment is change again no matter due to technological or political factor, organization need to aware that whether their structure now is consists with the changing of the environment.If their structure is not the best in current environment, then they need to revise their structure again to get the most productive outcome. Otherwise, the change of environment may either lead to some benefit or harms to the organization. Thevenet (1988) cited in Soparnot (2011) believe that the change of organizational structure is always beneficial. However, Soparnot (2005) cited in Soparnot (2011) argued that the changes of structure can destabilize organization and it is risky and costly.In an organization, if they are manage according to hierarchy structure, there are different level of manager and different opinion towards the change of the organization exist, different people have their own idea, each will suggest different idea and this will wasting time and resources to test for it. Walston and Chou (2011) said that the greater the differences between hierarchical perceptions, the inefficiency of the organization change and effort.Therefore, there are no any best constant structure of organization, because the environment is keep on changing, what an organization can do is only keep on changing that align with the environmental changes. Mechanistic System Mechanistic management system is consist of hierarchic structure of control, authority , specialization , differentiation and centralized decision making (Burns and Stalker, 1961). Hierarchical structure is commonly carry out in an organizational chart form.Organizational chart show us the management structure or hierarchical structure, how the organization manage according to different department, or specialization. During the mid 20th century there was a trend for organizations to create huge corporate structures, often composed of many varied and different businesses, for instance, the Hanson Trust, Unilever, Trafalgar House, and GNK in the UK and General Electric in the USA (Mabey, Salaman and Storey, 2001 cited in McMillan, (n. . ). Hales and Rabey (2011) held that a good management is consists of specific job for specific person, clear role definitions for each job, clear job specification and so on. It is talking about mechanic system of organizational structure. In the hierarchical structure, decisions are made by top level and task are delegated to different department manager of middle level, and these managers will make sure the workers under them is kept in line with them (Hales and Rabey, 2011).Since that are not a teamwork which they do not share common interest but they need to do more than the person who make decision and thus make them do not have any motivation to do their best or produce the best idea. This may occur because everyone have different perceptions. As mentioned earlier, the greater difference between hierarchical perception, the inefficiency of the effort (Walston and Chou, 2011). When everyone have their own perception, but decision is not made by them, conflict will occur.Conflict usually occur in relation to decision and sometimes it may lead to threat (Beckhard and Dyer, 1983 cited in Frank et al. , 2011). Decision making of hierarchical structure is also a waste of time since there are different level in the organization, decision making need to go through from low to middle and the top, it take time and wast e of resources, when there are something happen between the level of authority, it need even more time than usual. Wang and Ahmed (2003) cited in Kulmala and Uusi-Rauva (2005) highlight organizational structure influence its decision making and the internal processes.Employees in an organization should not wait for manager comments or negotiations for organization sake (Kuitunen et al, 1999 cited in Kulmala and Uusi-Rauva, 2005). In order to reduce the conflict of decision making of the hierarchical structure and waste of time, the changes of this hierarchical structure is needed. Burns and Stalker (1961) highlight that in organic system, position in an organization is differentiated by the expertise, whoever have greater expertise can lead the team and he or she will have the best authority.For mechanistic system, people who control the organization is according to standardization of skill, it is control by the person who have undergone extensive training and socialization (Friedso n, 1970 cited in Abernethy and Stoelwinder, n. d. ). Burns and Stalker (1961) claims that the position of the leader is settled by consensus via voting in an organic system. When the position of the leader is agreed by voting, then it may consider fair because there are no any conflict of interest exist. However, for mechanistic system, position of the manager is the decision of the top level management.When the position of the leader is decided by the top level management people, there are inequality exists. Guy (1999) highlight that the increase of earnings inequality from the late 1970s until now is due to changes of organizational structure. When the decision is not reach the consensus of all but just solely based on the top level management, it seems like it is unfair. The top level may choose the one that is beneficial to him or her and promotes him or her to get higher position and this is not agreed by all. Organic SystemHence, Covin and Slevin(1990) cited in Altinay and Alt inay (2004) claims that organization often decentralize decision making authority, minimize the hierarchical structure and adopt free flow communication channels to make sure organization achieved higher performance. When talk about decentralization, actually it is talking about organic management system, Burns and Stalker(1961) said that organic management system is appropriate to the changing of environment, he describe organic management system as a network structure of control ,authority and communication, there are not alking about responsibilities of a person, but the responsible of the people in the network. Therefore, It is just like a team that achieve the same goals. However, the claimant that organization need to decentralize decision making was argued by Shields and Shields (1998) cited in Subramaniam and Mia (2001), said that not all managers accept the decentralization of organization structure because it will make outcomes of job unfavorable related such as low job sa tisfaction. For example, as what we have study now, we are choosing courses of education according to our interest.It is also the same as career, we will choose our job according to what we studied or what we like, if decentralize means that they are all working together without departmentalize, then we might need to do the job that we do not like and make us do not have the feeling of satisfaction when rushing for the work. Conclusion In conclusion, organizational structure is not fixed, it is not constant as all organization is using the same structure and monitor their work of organization.There will be no consensus on one particular structure of organization and thus make the organizational structure do not fixed. Actually, each structure will show their good and bad, when the structure is align with the change of environment or the structure is reach the consensus of all and thus achieve higher performance of organization, then this structure is consider as good. However, when the environment is change again , and people no longer agree on this structure, then this structure is no longer applicable , if this structure is insist in using, then it may bring harm to organization.Hence, there is no the best or the smartest structure for an organization (Mintzberg, 1979 cited in Wang and Ahmed, 2002). When the environment of the organization change, the structure of the organization also change according to the environment, this dynamism of the organization structure makes the organization do not have a fixed or constant strucuture (Martinsons & Martinsons, 1994 cited in Wang and Ahmed, 2002). No matter organic or mechanistic management system, as long as it is an effective structure that align with the environment, it will lead he organization to achieve superior performance. Organization structure do not fixed because mechanistic management system is applicable in some situation or organic management system is suitable in some situation or mixed of these two management system is necessary for some situation. In details, an organization can mixed the centralization and decentralization by apply both in their structure. Decentralization can motivate employees to enable them showing out their creative and innovative but not stop by top level manager.At the same time, some others part can be centralize to make sure employees follow the rules and regulation because some decision if freely make by employees on their own may create troublesome such as financing and investing decision. Hence, structure cannot fixed on whether it is centralization or decentralization (Buchanan and huczynski, 2010). Therefore, we cannot say that which structure is the best structure for organization because each of these structures play their own roles in different environmental changes. (2092 words) Bibliography: 1. Abernethy M. A. nd Stoelwinder, J. U. (n. d) â€Å"The relationship between organization structure and management control in hospitals: An elabora tion and test of Mintzberg’s professional bureaucracy model†, pp. 18-33. 2. Altinay, L. and Altinay, M. (2004) â€Å"The influence of organisational structure on entrepreneurial orientation and expansion performance†, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 16(6), pp. 334-344. 3. Burnes, B. (1996) â€Å"No such thing as †¦ a â€Å"one best way† to manage organizational change’, Management Decision, 34/10, pp. 11-18. 4. Burns, T. and Stalker, G.M. (1961) â€Å"The management of innovation†, London: Tavistock, pp. 103-108. 5. Child, J. (n. d) â€Å"Organizational strucuture, environment and performance: The role of strategic choice†, Sage Social Science Collections. 6. Frank, M. , Kessler, A. , Nose, L. , Suchy, D. (2011) â€Å"Conflicts in family firms: state of the art and perspectives for future research†, Journal of Family Business Management, 1(2), pp. 130-153. 7. Hales, S. and Rabey, G. (2011) â⠂¬Å"The frontline manager: fronting up to organisational change†, Industrial and Commercial Trainning, 43(6), pp. 368-376. 8. Knights, D. nd Willmott, H. (2007) Introducing organizational behaviour and management, South-Western Cengage Learning. 9. Kulmala, H. I. and Uusi-Rauva, E. (2005) â€Å"Network as a business environment: experiences from software industry†, Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, 10/3, pp. 169-178. 10. McMillan, E. (n. d. ) â€Å"Considering organization structure and design from a complexity paradigm perspective†, Open University. 11. Mukherji, A. (2002) â€Å"The evolution of information systems: their impact on organizations and structures†, Management Decision, 40/5, pp. 497-507. 12.Nandakumar, M. K. , Ghobadian, A. , O’Regan, N. (2010) â€Å"Business-level strategy and Performance: The moderating effects of environment and structure†, Management Decision, 48(6), pp. 907-939. 13. Singh, S. K. (2009) â⠂¬Å"Structuring organizations across industries in India†, Management Research News, 32(10), pp. 953-969. 14. Singh, S. K. (2009) â€Å"Structuring organizations across industries in India†, Management Research News, 32(10), pp. 953-969. 15. Smith, I. (2011) â€Å"Organisational quality and organisational change: Interconnecting paths to effectiveness†, Library Management, 32(1/2), pp. 11-128. 16. Strachan, P. A. (1996) â€Å"Managing transformational change: the learning organization and teamworking†, Team Performance Management: An International Journal, (2)2, pp. 32-40. 17. Subramaniam, N. and Mia, L. (2001) â€Å"The relation between decentralised structure, budgetary participation and organisational commitment: The moderating role of managers' value orientation towards innovation†, Accounting, Auditing ; Accountability Journal, 14(1), pp. 12-29. 18. Walston, S. and Chou, A. 2011) â€Å"CEO perceptions of organizational consensus and its impact on hospital restructuring outcomes†, Journal of Health Organization and Management, 25(2), pp. 176-194. 19. Wang, L. and Ahmed, P. K. (2002) â€Å"The Informal Structure: Hidden energies within the organization†, University of Wolverhampton, UK. 20. Guy, F. (1999) â€Å"Information technology, organization structure, and earnings inequality†, Birkbeck College, Malet St. 21. Buchanan D. A. and Huczynski, A. A. (2010) Organizational behaviour, Seventh edition, Pearson Education Limited.

Competitive Bidding Essay

Introduction An open and competitive procurement procedure begins with the promoter’s description of its requirements and an invitation to suppliers to indicate their interest in the contract and their professional capacity to fulfil it. The promoter then identifies potential suppliers and invites them to submit bids. After the bidding phase, most procurement systems require a public declaration of the competitors’ names and their bid prices and, ultimately, of the successful bidder. There is a wide variety of procurement procedures available for use in tendering when it comes to PPP arrangements. Many of these procedures have become prescriptive in nature. Many local governments follow standard procurement procedures drawn up by the International Federation of Consulting Engineers (FIDIC). However, most commonly PPP contracts are awarded as the result of some form of competitive bidding procedure. Designing a competitive bidding process – and getting the best possible result – is easiest when the product or service required is a fairly standard one and the technical outputs can be defined with reasonable certainty in the bidding documents. Particular attention, therefore, should be paid to providing good quality information to potential bidders and to the detailed design of the bidding process. Defining the procurement process Some initial decisions need to be made regarding the procurement and the bid evaluation process. It includes: Qualifying criteria for the evaluation and selection of shortlisted bidders Process for submission and evaluation Details of pre-submission conference or meeting and of other opportunities to ask questions or seek clarifications Indicative procurement schedule Other general instructions to applicants Application forms (as annexes) The choice of procurement method will depend on the government’s budget, capacity, desire to encourage innovation, need for high-level inputs, vulnerability to corruption, and objectives of the ppp project. Three main options, distinguished by the level of competition they create, are available: 1. Unsolicited proposals or direct negotiations. 2. Competitive negotiation. 3. Competitive bidding. Unsolicited proposals or direct negotiations When confronted with a unsolicited proposal, the government has three options: Direct negotiation to the offer.  Purchase the project concept then competitively tender among a range of bidders. Offer original proponent a predefined advantage in recognition of the value of the original proposal(bonus system)and open up bidding. Entering into a sole-source process can save government time and money and may alert government to an unrealized opportunity for ppp. However, sole-sourcing can encourage corruption through lack of transparency, and the cost benefits to competitive bidding are lost. Competitive negotiation. Competitive negotiation entail inviting a small group of bidders to a structured negotiation. The bidders are aware of the presence of the other bidders and there is pressure to obtain the best price. This arrangement is quicker and less expensive than full competitive process and can yield good prices. A time consuming procurement process may be seen as an opportunity cost to the private sector. This needs to be weighted against the degree of and value to transparency. 1. Competitive negotiations, another option of competitive bidding which generally involve the following stages: The government specifies its service objectives, and requests proposals from private operators for meeting these objectives. The government reviews the proposals and selects those that are technically responsive to the request proposals. The government then negotiates contract terms and conditions with the selected bidders. 2. Competitive negotiations may involve simultaneous negotiations with the objective of awarding one contract, or they may result in the award of several contracts. 3. Competitive negotiations are well suited to project in which technical variations are possible, there is much scope for innovation, and it would be difficult to secure project financing on the basis of standardized contract document. Advantages of competitive negotiations They permit bidders to be more creative and innovative. They reduce the incentive for bidders to deliberately underbid in order to win projects. They offer a richer means of screening bidders than price alone. Disadvantages Bids can be difficult to compare. Competition is less transparent than with competitive bidding. Competitive bidding process A competitive bidding process generally consists of: 1. public notification of the government’s intention to seek a private partner for the provision of, for example, water and sanitation services, including prequalification or a request for expressions of interest from private companies; 2. distribution of bidding documents and draft contracts to potential bidders; 3. a formal process for screening potential bidders and finalizing a list of qualified bidders; 4. a formal public process for presenting proposals, evaluating them, and selecting a winner. Different procedures for procurement include invitation to tender; and request for proposals (one- and two-stage processes). Formation of a Procurement Committee A Procurement Committee, often called a Tender Evaluation Committee, is formed for overseeing and conducting the bidding process. Typically, the Procurement Committee is formed with representatives from a number of MDAs with responsibility for the financial, legal and operational aspects of the project as well as the Bureau/Office of Public Procurement in order to have diversity and no one government group alone in charge of selecting the preferred bidder. The Committee appoints an in-house coordinator or an external consultant (Transaction Advisor) to manage the day-today aspects of the bidding process. However, the Procurement Committee itself (and not the coordinator or Transaction Advisor) is responsible for making the final determination of the preferred bidder. The Procurement Committee, in turn, could be divided into functional teams to focus on evaluation of specific aspects of the bidders’ proposals. For example, the Procurement Committee could have separate teams for undertaking technical review, legal review,  local preference review and financial review. The number of teams may depend upon the complexity of the project evaluation. Invitation to tender Generally, an invitation to tender is issued when the promoter knows exactly what it wants and how it wants to achieve its goals. Most often, the tender is issued and the lowest bidder is awarded the contract. Although this approach reduces the cost involved in developing a PPP, it may limit the promoter’s opportunities to view other, more efficient and/or more cost-effective options for delivery of the service. Request for proposals A request for proposals (RFP) is usually used when the promoter knows what it wants to achieve, but would like prospective partners to use their experience, technical capabilities and creativity to identify how the project objectives can best be met. One of the main differences between an RFP and an invitation to tender is that in an RFP the promoter is looking for value (that is, operating efficiency, cost-saving measures, innovations and so on), rather than the lowest bid. The request for proposals can be issued through either: a one-stage; or a two-stage process. The decision between having a single or a two-stage procedure for requesting proposals will depend on the nature of the contract, on how precisely the technical requirements can be defined and whether output results (or performance indicators) are used for selection of the contractor or concessionaire. If it is deemed both feasible and desirable for the contracting authority to formulate performance indicators or project specifications to the degree of precision or finality necessary, the selection may be structured as a single-stage process. In that case, after having concluded the pre-selection of bidders, the contracting authority would proceed directly to issuing a final request for proposals. Request for Expressions of Interest (RFEI) The RFEI is intended to provide the promoter with sufficient information to draft a clear RFP in cases when the local government has identified its  objectives, but may not have fully defined the project or service to be delivered. The use of an RFEI can assist in two ways: it reduces the time and expense involved in evaluating a larger number of proposals; and it improves the quality of proposals. In this sense, the RFEI is used to gain information to help in drafting the RFP. Request for Qualifications (RFQ) or Pre-qualification A RFQ is used in situations where the promoter and the project team have amore defined project, but do not know if there are any private sector partners with the resources, experience or interest to undertake the project. It is a step within a contract awarding procedure in which the party inviting the tenders selects the companies to participate in competitive bidding for the contract. To this end, potential participants in the competition are requested to submit information on their companies. The RFQ document is more specific than the RFEI document. In traditional government procurement it consists of the verification of certain formal requirements, such as adequate proof of technical capability or prior experience in the type of PPP, so that all bidders who meet the pre-selection criteria are admitted automatically to the tendering phase. Bidders should be required to demonstrate that they possess the professional and technical qualifications, financial and human resources, equipment and other physical facilities, managerial capacity, reliability and experience necessary to carry out the project. Qualification requirements should cover all phases of an infrastructure project, including financing, management, engineering, construction, operation and maintenance, where appropriate. Based on the pre-qualification results, a shortlist is drawn up of the companies eligible to compete. The bidders answer the RFQ with Expressions of Interest. The RFQ process is used as a â€Å"shortlisting† method to pre-qualify selected potential partners who will then receive the RFP. It is not designed to gain answers as to how the project will be completed. Depending on the pre-qualification requirements set out in the documents, different groups of companies will be selected. One recent trend is that pre-qualification requirements laid down by promoters such as local  governments have started to include not only the price and quality of the service they wish to procure, but also requests to address poverty, upgrade welfare and/or create employment opportunities. Often the bidding companies need to prove their recent experience with a previous assignment similar in nature and outcomes. Thus, the purpose of this stage is to enable the contracting authority to formulate its requirements in a manner that enables a final competition to be carried out on the basis of a single set of parameters. Put simply, this is an opportunity to ensure that in the final evaluation, the contracting authority is able to compare â€Å"apples to apples† rather than â€Å"apples to oranges.† Often local small businesses or community-based organizations are best suited to resolve a particular service delivery problem. In such cases, it is important not to leave the m out of the bidding process. One of the means through which this can be achieved is to simplify the tender documents. Obviously, pre-qualification, drafted without taking these potential bidders into account, could serve as an obstacle to the effective and innovative solutions to the existing problems. Meanwhile, the pre-qualifications can still be an effective mean pre-define the bidders for the RFP, when the criteria are correctly specified and weighted according to their value to the PPP project. Simplification of tender documentation The system of tender submission should not require too many forms of supporting information, which could be unnecessarily complicated for small businesses to complete satisfactorily. Besides, the administrative burden for smaller businesses in dealing with tender form requirements for government bodies is disproportionately greater and more expensive than for larger companies. Thus, the tender submission of documentation should be rationalized and simplified as far as possible to make it easier for small contractors to deal with the paperwork involved. However, this simplification of the documentation should not influence negatively the essence of the contract and the contractual obligations. Evaluation of Applications and Shortlisting of Bidders The applications are evaluated based on the technical and financial capabilities to implement the project as per the selection criteria given in  the RFQ. At this stage, the evaluation normally focuses on threshold criteria such that all proposals meeting the criteria are shortlisted for the next stage and all non-confirming proposals are rejected. A Pass/Fail approach is generally the preferred approach for evaluation of responses to the RFQ. However, a target number (3-5) of shortlisted bidders is usually preferred in order to ensure sufficient competition but not at the same time overcrowd the bidding process, and therefore sometimes only the highest qualifying firms will pass on to the full tender phase. If firms feel there are too many bidders, and thus the odds of winning are low, they will not participate in the full tender. Advantages of competitive bidding It ensures transparency. It provides a market mechanism for selecting the best proposal. It stimulates interests among a broad range of potential partners. It works best where outputs are standardized and all technical parameters can be clearly defined. It may encourage underbidding if renegotiation is possible later. The contract Regardless of the option selected, the essential elements to be included in a contract are: The parties to the agreement, Interpretation, sets forth the definitions of important terms and providing guidance on the interpretation of the contract’s provision’s: The scope, territorial jurisdiction and duration of the agreement, The objective of the contract, Circumstances of commencement, completion, modification and termination of contract; The rights and obligations of the contractor; The rights and obligations of the Government; The requirement for performance bonds to provide security for Government if the construction and service delivery falls below standards; Insurance requirements to provide security for the insurable matters; Government warranties; Private sector warranties: Consequence to a change in law; Service quality and performance and maintenance targets and schedules; The identification of regulatory authorities if any and the extent of their roles and authority; The responsibilities of the contractor and the Government with regard to capital expenditures; The form of remuneration of the contractor and how it will be covered, whether from fixed fee, fixed fee plus incentives or another arrangement; How key risks will be allocated and managed; The contractors right and responsibility with regard to passing through or entering public or private property; Reporting requirements; Procedures for measuring, monitoring and enforcing performance; Procedures for coordinating investment planning; Responsibility for environmental liabilities; Procedures for resolving disputes; Delay provisions describing what is and is not an excuse for a delay in construction and operations; Force majeure conditions and reactions; Procedures to be followed when either party to the PPP contract wishes to change any material portion of the contract; Indemnification circumstances; The right of each party to any intellectual property brought to the project or created during the project, including the steps to be taken to protect the intellectual property of third parties, such as information technology software manufacturers; Conflict of interests and dispute resolution; Description of the conditions under which either party may terminate the contract, the process to be undertaken in that regard, and the consequences to each party of a termination; The circumstances that may permit either the Government or any financial institution to â€Å"step in† to the contract to protect its rights under the PPP contract; Consequences of a change in the ownership or key personnel of the private partner; Mechanisms whereby the parties to the PPP contract will interact with each other going forward; Requirement that each party comply with all laws pertaining to the project, including obtainable environmental, zoning, planning and other permits; Conditions by which public sector employees are employed by the private sector contractor, including any restrictions on termination or redundancies for operational reasons; and Conditions precedent: describes any conditions  precedent to be fulfilled by either party before the contract takes effect. This list is i llustrative and does not capture every clause required in a contract. The final content of the contract will depend on the project scope, local legal requirement and precedent, and advice of legal advisors. It may include more elements as per demand of situation and size of the project. CONCLUSION PPP projects have lately become a popular operation model in public infrastructure development all over the world. Long-term contractual arrangements with PPPs change the traditional roles of the public and private sectors. Public sector bodies become clients and private sector bodies become service providers with a large responsibility of the project in question. PPP projects offer different kinds of benefits to both public and private parties. Both partnership parties also have different kinds of goals; however, the common goal is that both parties win. As the results in the text show, proactive law becomes relevant in contract law and contracting. Practicing proactive contracting requires more planning of legal relations. The goal is to prevent difficult future situations and avoid problems. Proactive contracting emphasizes contract preparation. That is why, for example, issues and questions concerning risks, risk management and creative contractual mechanisms play a significant role. In business relations, proactive contracting invites and gathers different professions to participate in a new type of co-operation. A common language has to be found, for example, between the people in companies with technical, financial, and legal backgrounds. In this way, it is possible to assess the possible risks and other critical contractual questions in the contract preparation phase. A partnership mindset is essential in PPP projects. A client and a project company form the main contractual relationship in terms of PPP projects. In addition to this, for example, a project company has several contracts with subcontractors. These partnerships are complex contractual relationships in which trust plays a big role. Co-operation requires constant care in the form of communication and reciprocal trust to strengthen it. Trust is achieved by th e companies and public sector representatives binding themselves to shared goals. Furthermore, once strong  trust has been built and established, firms may enjoy lower costs than those without such trust. In the business context, trust seems to be based partly on economic calculations and partly on the trusting party’s basic values as a human being. Each PPP project consists of several different contracts, so that they are actually a bundle of contracts. These contracts cover, for example, construction, financing, and services. PPP projects are long-term and very complex contractual arrangements which require careful and time-consuming preparation and negotiations. Dozens of different risks exist as well. As regards risks with PPP projects, the proactive way is the only reasonable way to handle and allocate them. This requires investments from the parties. As the results in the text show, changing circumstances play a significant role in long-term contracts and, for instance, in PPP projects in terms of contract law. It is sensible for the parties to prep are for changing circumstances. This requires proactive mindset and actions. In practice, this means that parties have to create flexible contractual mechanisms for contracts so that they can respond to possible changing circumstances in the future. These mechanisms can be, e.g. clauses concerning changes in official regulations and legislation, hardship, renegotiations, and force majeure. As the results in the text show, in Finnish PPP projects and their contractual arrangements, tailored contract clauses, insurances, securities, and guarantees have been used as tools for managing and allocating risks. It has also been noted that the most problematic situations arise when risks are not individualized. Problems also occur when a risk is individualized but the risk-bearing party is not determined. Proactive law and risk management play significant roles in PPP projects. Moreover, tailored contract clauses and mechanisms also have a great significance.

Ikea Invades America Essay

Founded in 1943 by a poor Swedish farmer named Ingvar Kamprad, IKEA is now one of the largest furniture retailers in the world. From its inception, Kamprad wanted to create cheap, quality furniture that everyone could afford. That formula led to IKEA’s early success in Sweden and has carried over until today. To its customers, IKEA is not just a store but a way of life, which may be evident through the cult-like following the company has achieved. When talking about the four P’s of marketing (product, price, place, promotion), there are few companies in the world that have mastered this concept better than IKEA. IKEA has been able to recognize the demands of its shoppers and create compelling products that meet those demands at a reasonable price. Its products are sold at unique stores that serve strategically important, geographic markets. This paper examines the factors that have made IKEA such a big success and offers some recommendations for future growth in the United States. Today, IKEA has over 240 stores in 35 countries and has revenues of over $26 billion. Its revenues double every 5-6 years and the company is now expanding to growing markets like China, Japan, and Brazil. The future of IKEA looks brighter than ever. For a brief snapshot of IKEA’s current sales around the world see Appendix 1. In 1985, IKEA decided to invade America. Faced with this early failure, IKEA retooled its furniture to fit American tastes. IKEA soon became the fastest growing furniture retailer and the 14th largest furniture retailer overall in the United States. IKEA executives needed to find a balance of how to create new furniture offerings without losing its unique design and corporate soul. By examining IKEA’s marketing strategy and answering a series of four questions, we have developed recommendations (see Appendix 2) that we think will lead to IKEA’s continued growth and success. 1) What are some of the ways that furniture retailers have sought to overcome these purchase obstacles? : a) identifying a product that consumers like, b) visualizing the product in the consumer’s home, and c) getting the product in the consumer’s home? In furniture sales, there are two general strategies: the low-end and the high-end. The low-end offers cheap, utilitarian furniture that is dreary looking. Cheap furniture is marketed to people such as college students who have a small budget. The cheap furniture is also displayed in poorly lit showrooms that offer little to no customer service. High-end furniture stores compete on quality and service. The high-end offers a large selection in each style and sub-style of furniture, which results in the showroom having a large inventory. The broad, variety strategy virtually guarantees that a customer’s preferred style will be available. The high-end stores also have high touch sales associates to help customers with product selection and furniture measurement. Sales associates are trained to educate their customers; such as explaining the life spans of different materials. They also reassure customers that their furniture will last a life time. Visualizing a piece of furniture in a person’s home can be very difficult. The high-end furniture stores have beautiful showrooms that are elaborately decorated to help the customer visualize where they can place new furniture or how they can redecorate their home. High-end stores also offer interior design services. Most retailers offer credit to make high-end furniture more affordable. All retailers offer home delivery, sometimes free, to make the transition as painless as possible for the customer. As an added bonus, retailers offer to assemble the furniture in the customer’s home. Sometimes, delivering the furniture also involves rearranging furniture, as well as removing and discarding old furniture. Providing these services makes the purchase of new furniture an easy and worry-free process. 2) Explain IKEA’s reverse positioning strategy. IKEA created a matrix used to prioritize product lineup and price. (See Appendix 3) Primarily the matrix is used to set a target retail price and select a product style. With the matrix system, IKEA is able to identify product line opportunities and gaps; creating a well rounded store. IKEA has avoided the image of the low end furniture store by displaying furniture in brightly lit showrooms. These showrooms help customers envision how the furniture interacts with the allotted space. Plus color coordinated cards provide design tips and information kiosks are on hand to help customers. All of these features reinforce IKEA’s self service ethos without making the customer feel abandoned. In IKEA’s case, the firm rejected the standard business models for both high-end and low-end furniture stores. IKEA’s furniture is composed of cheaper parts that are not visible and are not under high stress through use and a higher quality material is used for the visible parts or parts under high stress. This gives IKEA’s furniture a higher end look while keeping their costs low. IKEA’s reverse positioning kept prices low, while eliminating many services thought essential to a higher-end store. The company replaced them with unique services for its category: a bright, inviting showroom, furniture that was attractively designed, a child care center, a restaurant serving Swedish meatballs, and brightly colored house wares and clever toys. As a result, IKEA successfully avoided the feel of the low-end retailers, and customers â€Å"find the IKEA shopping experience to be immensely appealing (Moon, â€Å"IKEA Invades America,† 5). 3) What are some of the various product/service attributes that IKEA has chosen to withhold from its customers? IKEA seems to incorporate a hybrid strategy focusing on both cost and differentiation. IKEA attempts to price in the low to midrange category. IKEA does not build its furniture to last a lifetime, which in-fact flows well with its ad campaigns focused on letting go of the semimetal value Americans often place on furniture. IKEA products are known for falling apart after a few years; however, its customers are typically satisfied with the look, functionality, and affordability of IKEA products (Moon, 2004, p. 5). Its focus is on cost-efficiency, so the company uses higher-quality materials on visible surfaces and lower-quality materials elsewhere. High-end stores compete on quality and â€Å"high touch† experience and selection. Nearly all types of furniture stores offer delivery services. However, IKEA successfully eliminated many of these attributes. IKEA products are designed to be transported unassembled in flat boxes, which keeps shipping costs low and prevents IKEA from having to deliver/assemble furniture for customers (Moon, 2004, p. ). Customers are responsible for transportation of their furniture and assembly of their furniture. Although this step may seem like its decreasing the consumer experience/perceived product value; it’s actually keeping the customer involvement level high. Moreover, the competitive pricing offered at IKEA is attributed to letting customer build their own furniture, which keeps costs to a minimum. Formerly, IKEA only produced a few different designs; however, this has changed in recent years. In order to be consistent with IKEA’s self-service ethos and to keep costs low, the ratio of sales assistants to customers is kept low. The low number of sales associates can have a negative effect on the consumer experience. To handle furniture questions, customers are provided with product descriptions and measuring tape so they can make their own measurements. 4) What are some of the areas that IKEA has managed to achieve cost efficiency by implementing a number of firm-specific operation processes? A number of cost effective operating processes have been implemented by IKEA. In furniture design, IKEA engineers often select cheaper/low quality materials for less visible areas that experience minimal stress and expensive materials for visible areas that undergo stress. This aids IKEA in producing durable, good-quality products at low costs. IKEA has worked with over 1,800 suppliers in over 50 countries and often uses suppliers from developing countries. To keep costs down, IKEA usually purchases in bulk and often orders various components of a given product from different suppliers. IKEA is strict with employees about waste; it enforces minimal travel budgets and requires them to save electricity. IKEA keeps a small staff in stores and provides self-serve trolleys to aid consumers in loading their vehicles. Typical furniture retailers require a larger staff and/or incur shipping costs for delivery of their bulky, already assembled products. Flat packaging allows IKEA customers to transport their purchases home and eliminates the expense of home delivery. IKEA’s flat packaging strategy is another firm specific operating process. The strategy was inspired by an employee who, in 1955, removed the legs off a table to fit it into a customer’s car. This strategy requires designers to keep in mind the amount of space their products take up in their unassembled form. Flat packaging also helps prevent damage to the products during the shipping process. IKEA will often redesign their products multiple times to achieve space optimization and reduce shipping costs. Space optimization typically lowers prices for consumers; however, it may lengthen the assembly process. IKEA should continue to incorporate cost cutting activities across the board so long as the consumer experience remains positive.

Business Resume Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Business Resume - Assignment Example EDUCATION: Rider University, Lawrenceville, NJ Bachelor of Science in Business Administration 2016 Major: Finance GPA: 3.07 SKILLS: Microsoft Office Applications, Excel, Pastel, and Sage. HONORS: College of Business Honors Programme Dean’s List College Environmental Honors program EXPERIENCE: 2010: Working in a Bank for 3 Months Served as a teller -receiving deposits and processing withdrawals for clients within the bank for one month. The issue of loans- Transferred to the credit department where I worked for one month in processing loans applications for applicants. The opening of Accounts for customers- Transferred to the personal banking section where I worked for another month opening bank accounts for clients. Summer 2011: Worked at a Subway -Cash Collection at the subway - Issue of tickets to the clients - Leader of the cash-collection team at the subway

Security Bank Customer Service Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Security Bank Customer Service - Essay Example Many banks have failed to improve their business performance because of scarcity of natural resources in their economy. The Security Bank aims to advance their business through ensuring that the scarce resources are well utilized well in the organization in order to avoid compromising with the future needs. Thus, it will ensure that the business rates are higher more than the spending rates. This is through delivering high quality and effective customer services to organizations in order to capture the attention of many customers; thus increasing the profitability levels. The business also plans to improve the investment level by 3% in the year 2018. This is crucial because it will enable the business to improve their performance level in order to achieve high profitability level.The marketing segmentation of the potential buyers will be based on gender, income, age, education, employment and family lifecycle. Margit and Pallas (79) point out that understanding market and segmenting markets are crucial because it can enlarge the customer base. This is because segmenting market will offer adequate information to the business, which will successfully enable them to adjust their component of business activities. For instance, the Security Banking sector has to adjust their components on the way they service and market their products across the organizations. The bank can either chose banking technologies as a single and combined e-payment platform by encouraging customers to use SmartVista collection. The aim of advancing technology in the banking sector is to provide customers the solution to complicated card transactions and operations. For instance, the business will install SmartVista software in order to expand the ATMs and Internet merchants as well as improve the mobile banking services. The business is currently planning to transfer the SmartVista solution in the next five years in order to increase banking performance; thus offering better

Women and their Rights to Sexual and Reproductive Health Essay

Women and their Rights to Sexual and Reproductive Health - Essay Example This system of patriarchy is supported and intensified by our society through the continuous reinforcement of the male domination via different institutions such as religion, government, economy, family, and often than not, the institution of education as well. Likewise, one among the roles being played by these social institutions is the shaping of gender roles between men and women. It is the case that how people are supposed to behave and how they act are something that is already influenced and anticipated by the society. On the one hand, the unjust power dynamics between men and women has affected greatly women in our society in general. It is not just the old, middle – aged, young, or even those females who are not born yet who are affected but generally, all women are troubled. This is for the reason that women are clearly situated at a disadvantageous point because of the unfair and unequal power relations between men and women. Women are considered as second class cit izens who are powerless and need to depend on men. Women lack the power to control their lives and even to rule over their own body since the normative standard expects men to dominate over women. Because of the fact that women cannot even have power over their own bodies, they are not given priority and are usually ignored to have the rights to the sexual and reproductive health. In this regard, this argumentative paper will dwell on the position that women, who lack the control over their bodies, must have the rights to their sexual and reproductive health. I am saying this not just on behalf of those women who are infected by sexual infections and diseases, but I am stating this on behalf of all the women. Not all women may have the full awareness that they are limited because of gender but just accept what the society dictates them. However, sexual and reproductive health is one of the many things that women do not have. Thus, they should have these rights as women. Human immuno deficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), as stated by Amzat and Abdullahi (2008), has turned out to be a challenging global health concern for having around 40 million infected people in Africa. Indeed, this health issue is indeed a global concern but the condition of Africa is something that is really shocking. It is the case that seven (7) out of ten (10) infected with the disease are residing at this region. What contributes to this bulk number of infected people is not just the lack of awareness of having protected sex and the lack of safe sex practice however, according to the United Nations Development Programme – Pacific Centre’s (UNDPPC) (2009) report, there is a close connection between the spread of HIV as well as the distinct and unfair experiences of women and men and together with the unjust power relations between them that leads to the gender – based discrimination of different sorts suffered by women. Moreover, the r esult of the new report has been consistent to the United Nations’ old report in 1996. Both have asserted that gender is still suggested to be considered as a concern in order to address, stop and invert the increase of HIV as well as the other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). The case of the spread of HIV in the Pacific is marked by risky sexual behaviors of men who have happened to hold more social power and have more freedom in having sexual activities as compared to women (UNDPPC, 2009). Meanwhile, the society has constructed its ideas on masculinity whose common features link to their likelihood of acquiring this sexual infection. Men’s physical and sexual prowess together with their authority in the society has altered the

UK Law-Succession Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

UK Law-Succession - Coursework Example However, circumstances exist whereby the requirement of a grant can be waivered. In the first place, where the value of the estate is worth  ?5,000 or less, secondly, where the value of the estate is greater than ?5,000 but has neither a house, shares nor any bank account, with more than ?5,000. Further, a grant of representation will not be necessary where all houses, bank accounts and other assets had been under joint tenancy. The estate in question in this case is one that is above the value of 5000 and an asset in form of a bank account worth ?7800 thus making a grant necessary and not susceptible to the first two exceptions. It should however be noted that part of the deceased estate viz a house worth ?400,000 was jointly co-owned with the surviving spouse Andrea, broaching out a significant legal implication. Thus the issue is whether or not a grant of representation necessary in this case. W Swadling, ‘Property: General Principles’ poses that where two co-owners of a property, if they co-owned a house under joint tenancy then the surviving co-owner shall take ownership of the deceased share automatically through jus accrescendi regardless of any will or rule of intestacy. As such the property co-owned may not be subject to any grant of representation. ... The question that arises therefore in relation to the rest of the estate is what type of grant is accruable to whom and what share of the estate ought to be provided for the representatives. There exist three types of grants viz, grant of probate, grant of letters of representation and grant of letters of representation with Will annexed. A grant of probate only applies when the deceased has left a valid will appointing one or more executors to perform duties regarding the estate as provided by the will. Only the appointed have the right to ‘prove’ the Will. In the current case, Peter died without a Will and therefore no appointed executors and thus no one among the persons with interest to the estate can apply for a grant of representation to probate. Similarly, a grant of representation annexed with a Will, requires first that the deceased ought to have died with a valid Will, having appointed an executor but that the executor is unable or unwilling to apply for the gr ant then an applicant may be granted. Thus the type of grant that is applicable in this case is that called ‘grant of letters of administration’. This is because the deceased died intestate. The persons (or would be administrators) entitled to this grant are commonly one or more of nearest relatives alive. It is important to note that any of these types of grants could be classified as either general or limited grants. There exist two extensive procedures on how to apply for probate or administration. First is by way of employing a solicitor to undertake the process on the person’s behalf. Secondly is by applying on one’s self via the Personal Applicants Section of the Probate Office, or one of the District Probate Registries. One can

NPV, PI, IRR, and Payback Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

NPV, PI, IRR, and Payback - Essay Example It is the rate that helps a firm in bringing the NPV equals to 0 by discounting few cash inflows and outflows further (Alessi, 2006). However, this method is not always to be relied on as the cash flow changes are often experienced by a firm. Another method of calculation of capital budgeting is the payback period. It tells the firm, the time span in which the firm can cover up for its cost if investment. However it does not take the real value of money over the years in account. Furthermore, it also does not help the firm in the amounts by which the shareholders wealth will increase and the cash inflows are not taken into account after the cost of investment has been covered. The Profitability Index (PI) of a firm the ration by which the firm can payoff to the investment that is done regarding a project. The projects are easily ranked as a result as the values that are created by each unit are quantified. It is also known as Value Investment Ratio IVIR) (Top of Form NPV’s have been considered as the most exact calculator of the firm’s profitability. However, the evaluation of the NPV’s does not tell a firm of the IRR that each project holds within. A project can have a higher NPV, a smaller safety margin and a smaller IRR! IRR allows the firm in analyzing the cost of capital in comparison to the internal rate of return. However, if the projects cash flow moves from negative to positive every now and then, the firm will experience a number of IRRs making the evaluation of the project difficult and less understandable. Payback provides the firms with the liquidity of a project along with the risk that is involved. If the payback is found as long termed then the earnings of the firm will need to be â€Å"tied up† for quite a long time. Moreover, the chances of the failure in a project will increase. All of the above provide the firm a different analysis angle on

Hyper Globalization Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Hyper Globalization - Research Paper Example According to Rodrik it is impossible to have a situation where globalization flourishes while democracy and sovereignty succeed. Rodrik argues that where globalization flourishes, national policies are weak and where state democracy is strong globalization has no root in that country. Rodrik says that the choice is what is necessary for nations to choose either to succeed in the global integration or national interest. However, he argues a balance can be achieved like the Bretton Woods convention agreement. Rodrik Dani presents the Argentina scenario to argue that globalization and national politics are incompatible. Argentina economy collapsed after managing to pass the Convertibility Law which ensured that monetary mismanagement was checked to avoid loss of government fund. However, the law created unfavorable exchange rates that made investor turn down any investment opportunity in the country. The lawmaker had made it a political ideology to control the exchange rate and thus the ideas got support from every quarter of the nation. Nevertheless, the country bumped itself into the reality of the global economy. The advent of GATT and World Trade Organization brought an era that championed the benefit of globalization. These bodies strategized the functioning of the global market by drawing up laws that would check and improve trade between nations. According to Rodrik, the agreement of Bretton Woods, GATT and WTO refuted the national laws to accommodate free trade. The developed countries supported the idea of globalization and helped establish international financial institutions like the International Monetary Fund, World Bank and General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). These institution initiated hyper-globalization, but with the subordination of national policies.  

The Lottery by Shirley Jackson Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Lottery by Shirley Jackson - Essay Example The story reveals the misguided beliefs of the villagers and their specific customs. The day, in which the lottery was conducted, Mr. Summers, an old man in the village, gives guidance for the villagers. He arrives in the village square carrying a black wooden box with slips of paper in it and Mr. Graves, a young man in the town, follows Mr. Summer, carrying a three- legged stool. People keep a distance from the box and the reader can see that the villagers show their willingness as well as their hesitations towards the rituals. Amelia Tibbet observes that â€Å"Basically, the story revolves around the misguided belief that if the villagers sacrifice one of their own to what readers are led to believe is a Rain God, then they will have good crops the next year† (Tibbett). The villagers believe that if they fail to follow the tradition of the lottery, they will face some tough consequences like starvation, poverty and drought. Before the lottery is conducted, various lists had to be made, such as the heads of households, heads of eminent families, and the members of each family. The old man keeps and classifies all the details and begins the lottery. From the words of the old citizens in the town, the reader can see that there had been a ritual solute which the officials of the lottery used to practice. They had addressed each and every person who come up and draw from the box. Examining the procedures, the reader can see â€Å"there had been a recital of some sort, performed by the official of the lottery, a perfunctory, tuneless chant that had been rattled off duly each year† (Jackson). After the drawing, the winner is stoned to death by the villagers, and their activity exposes their superstition and brutality. Here, the modern reader may feel the situation as absolutely ironic because they have positive expectations

Restoration & Recovery Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 2

Restoration & Recovery Plan - Essay Example Interconnected capabilities of information systems allow system operators instant feedback from an inquiry. Moreover, their interconnectedness provides added resources as they provide links to other databases with critical information. For those with harmful intentions, the interconnectivity of public safety systems represents an opportunity. One vile or deleted piece of information can easily infiltrate and corrupt or lock an entire system’s operations and subsequently infect connected systems. It is believed that government systems may become targets of attack (Wilmot, 2004; Wilson, 2003). Instead of using explosives, terrorists may resort to the destructive effects of data packets. According to Lieutenant General Kenneth A. Minihan, groups harboring hostility towards the United States are currently developing â€Å"offensive information warfare capabilities† (Wilcot, 2004, p. 284) making government computers and information systems targets (Wilson, 2003). As a connected subsidiary of the federal government (SafirRosetti, 2006), the Fort Lauderdale Police Department of Florida FLPD and its information systems are equally susceptible to attacks. The Fort Lauderdale Police Department implements several strategies to combat imminent attacks against information systems; however, its strategies require added forethought and planning. Though the risks of information systems is known among systems operators, protection plans are far and few between. Scarce time is invested into the protecting systems. Wilcot (2004) points out the haphazard security of information systems: â€Å"In most agencies, security is relegated to someone in the information services (IS) department, who usually has many other duties.† (p 291) To ensure the safety of its information systems, FLPD relies on its staff (SafirRosetti, 2006) and the administrative department of the Risk Management Division (BCL). The person in charge of

Week 6 Assignment Essay Example for Free

Week 6 Assignment Essay E10-1(Acquisition Costs of Realty) The expenditures and receipts below are related to land, land improvements, and buildings acquired for use in a business enterprise. The receipts are enclosed in parentheses. (a) Money borrowed to pay building contractor (signed a note) $(275,000) (b) Payment for construction from note proceeds 275,000 (c) Cost of land fill and clearing 10,000 (d)Delinquent real estate taxes on property assumed by purchaser 7,000 (e) Premium on 6-month insurance policy during construction 6,000 (f) Refund of 1-month insurance premium because construction completed early (1,000) (g) Architect’s fee on building 25,000 (h) Cost of real estate purchased as a plant site (land $200,000 and building $50,000) 250,000 (i) Commission fee paid to real estate agency 9,000 (j) Installation of fences around property 4,000 (k) Cost of razing and removing building 11,000 (l) Proceeds from salvage of demolished building (5,000) (m) Interest paid during construction on money borrowed for construction 13,000 (n) Cost of parking lots and driveways 19,000 (o) Cost of trees and shrubbery planted (permanent in nature) 14,000 (p) Excavation costs for new building 3,000 Instructions Identify each item by letter and list the items in columnar form, using the headings shown below. All receipt amounts should be reported in parentheses. For any amounts entered in the Other Accounts column, also indicate the account title. Holyfield Dorsett Winston   Liston Greeley Machine cost $160,000 $120,000 $152,000 $160,000 $130,000 Accum Depr. 60,000 45,000   71,000 75,000 –0– Fair value 92,000 69,000 92,000 95,000 185,000 Instructions For each of the four independent situations, prepare the journal entries to record the exchange on the books of each company.

Marriage in African Traditional Society

Marriage in African Traditional Society Marriage is an important step in the life of every human on earth. Different cultures have different rituals and beliefs about marriage. Love, economic status, religious beliefs, and social acceptance are just a few reasons individuals marry across differing cultures. To understand various form of marriages among the Kenyan societies and specifically the Akamba, we shall look at length the systems of marriages that existed. Kenyan culture is very diverse and full of tradition based on social norms that have been around for generations. Social life is patterned around a strong clan and extended family ties. This plays a vital role in the marriage process. Kenyans attempt to maximize rewards and minimize costs. This is done by comparing what one gives up compared to what they receive in marriage. A husband may receive social status, sexual enhancement, increased labor, and the knowledge that his blood-line will continue, while giving up some sort of economic compensation to the family of the wife. The wife may receive resources, adult status as a wife, and protection in return for her labor and obedience to her husband. Marriage is a recognized union of a man and a woman as husband and wife, a union that is intended to last their joint lives. Mutisya(2004) cites a case of Rex vs Amkeyo, the then Chief Justice, Sir Robert Hamilton, that stated: In my opinion, the use of the word marriage to describe the relationship entered into by an African native with a woman of his tribe according to tribal custom is a misnomer that has led in the past to a considerable confusion of ideas the element of a so-called marriage by native custom differs so materially from the ordinary accepted idea of what constitutes a civilized form of marriage that it is difficult to compare the two. However, in the African mind, it is considered as a serious affair and one that demands high commitment. There are no half-measures in Akamba marriages. A man who engages in dubious marital relationships is a mutuanya, a vagabond despised by everyone in the community. Likewise, a woman without a proper husband is referred to as a mukoma nthi, one who sleeps on the floor, a person of no fixed abode. Among the Akamba, a virgin bride brought shame to her family; her virginity was an indication of ill preparation before marriage, therefore young women were ritually deflowered by elder men from whom they received sexual teachings. In the same vein, pre-marital sex was permitted for both boys and girls to prepare them adequately for their conjugal responsibilities in marriage. Among the Akamba, marriage had the specific purpose of perpetuating ones lineage and in the process, bestowing social status on the man and his wife. When a boy and girl came to a secret agreement that they were in love and wanted to marry, upon agreement, the young mans father would approach the girls parents on the matter. This was followed by the first sign of sealing an in-law relationship uthoni with two goats mbui sya ntheo. The young suitor then prepared the best beer uki, which was taken to the girls father, followed by a negotiation on the bride-wealth. The Akamba married woman was more or less the head of the family in the long run, since the husband had little control over her in the day to day management. If such a freedom to manage the home was absent, the husband had the danger of his wife becoming exasperated and running away. At all costs, the husband had to avoid such situations of a wife running back to her parents, because he would definitely not recover the dowry he gave to her parents, which could only happen if his former wife re-married. In the case of re-marriage, the new husband was obliged to refund the entire dowry paid to the former husband. In the final analysis what this system did was to reduce exceedingly the number of divorce cases. The Akamba men were socialized to worship physical power fighting, cattle raiding, and so on. The women maintained a closely guarded culture of oppression in which men were excluded from all intellectual activities. The mens only tasks were to raid cattle and guard the community. When they were not doing that, they were allowed to spend their time drinking beer or socializing. They were excluded from all creative activities where thought and tact would have been necessary. In deed, even in worshiping Mulungu the Akamba God, the men were excluded. The women had their own well organized religion called Kathambi. Their goddess, Kathambi, is the goddess of rain and fertility. The women associated rain and fertility with womanhood. And since men dont give birth or menstruate, they were deemed incapable of communicating with Mulungu. The congregation of Kathambi worshiping women was called Ngolano and the congregation was led by woman priestesses (who had stopped menstruating and giving birth) in shrines called mathembo, composed of thick forests or huge trees. Ghost Wives (Mulewa) Mulewa Muthiani goes about her business just like any other widowed woman in her village in Ukambani. But there is one difference between her and normal widows Mulewa never met her husband. In fact, she was married to him after he died, about 30 years ago. Mulewa is what is referred to in Ukambani as a ghost wife. And while she never set eyes on Muthiani, her husband, she knows for a fact that he once lived, and even if now long dead, he continues to live as a spirit. This she knows because when she was being married, her mother in-law, Muthoni who died in 1992 told her that she was being married to bear children for Muthonis son, Muthiani, who died in early childhood. Yes, she has children five in fact who were fathered by different men and who bear her dead husbands name. Stanely Kimanga. It was considered highly important for every Akamba man to be married because it was his wife and children that would guarantee keeping his memory beyond his death. If an Akamba man died before marriage, the father arranged to obtain a wife (Mulewa) for the dead son. Such a girl was married to the name of the dead unmarried man and bore him children, usually by his brother (cf. Middleton, p. 90). In 1967 C. W .Hobley wrote in Bantu Beliefs and Magic: There is a curious custom in Ukambani If a young unmarried man is killed away from his village, his Imu or spirit will return there and speak to the people through the medium of an old woman in a dance and say: I am so-and- so speaking, and I want a wife. The youths father will then make arrangements to buy a girl from another village and bring her to his, and she will be mentioned as the wife of the deceased, speaking of him by name Among the Akamba, a woman could be married to a man who was long dead and such a woman was called Mulewa ghost wife. Athough the ghost wife never met her husband, she knew he once lived and continued to live as a spirit. Mulewa was therefore expected to bear children for her dead husband by sleeping with other men. The ghost wife cultural practice also catered for male children who died in infancy. The bereaved mother counted the years until the dead baby would have reached marriageable age, then she would find him a bride. Before a girl was identified to be a ghost wife, there had to be evidence that she had already produced a son. The continuation of the dead mans lineage and that of his father was of prime importance. Even if daughters remained at home and produced children, they were not perceived as continuing the lineage of their maternal grandfather because kinship in the Akamba community was patrilineal and the children of daughters would not belong to the same clan as their grandfather. A ghost wife was accorded the privileges of a normal wife and her right of inheritance was protected and she received what her dead husband would have received from his parents. Woman-to-Woman Marriage (Iweto) The practice of women marrying women is somewhat common in certain societies in West Africa, Southern Africa, East Africa, and the Sudan. Yet, besides a total lack of discussion in the popular media, what is typically called woman-woman marriage is the subject of a very small body of academic literature. Cross-culturally, women take wives under three circumstances, all of which increase the status of the female husband: 1) barren women and widows take wives to obtain rights over children produced; 2) rich women accumulate wives to gain prestige and wealth in the same way men do through polygyny; and 3) in some societies where women have the right to have a daughter-in-law, women without sons can exercise their right to a daughter-in-law by marrying a woman and giving her to a non-existent son. In each of these situations, African women are able to manipulate the existing system through woman-to-woman marriage in order to achieve higher social and economic status. Woman-to-woman marriage can also be beneficial to persons other than the female husband. Woman-to-woman marriage involves the following persons: 1) the female husband herself; 2) if the female husband is already married, her own husband (the female husbands husband); 3) the woman who is married by the female husband the wife; and 4) the lover(s) of the wife who may father her children. To obtain a full understanding of the topic, it is important to examine the motivations not only of the wife, but also those of the wifes lover(s) and the husband (if any) of the female husband. The Akamba practiced woman-to-woman marriage (Gynegamy) known as Iweto All ceremonial aspects of this marriage were observed, bride-wealth was paid to the girls father, and all rules of divorce applicable in the Akamba community were adhered to. This marriage involved one woman marrying another woman, thus assuming control over her and her offspring. The Akamba female husbands resorted to this form of marriage to further their social and economic positions in society. Barren women and widows took wives to obtain rights over children produced. Rich Akamba women accumulated wives to gain prestige and wealth in the same way men do through polygamy. The Akamba women who had no sons exercised their right to a daughter-in-law by marrying a woman and giving her to a non-existent son. The Akamba allowed a woman who had no sons to marry another woman. This was usually after widowhood, but could also be during the husbands lifetime. The bride worked for and looked after the elderly woman she had married but was free to choose male partners as she pleased, since the purpose for her union with the elderly woman was to have sons. Any children born belonged to the family group, and the sons would inherit the property. Among the Akamba it was and still is the wifes duty to provide food for the family from the family cultivated land. The wife could ask for divorce if the plot of land was too small and the husband refused to negotiate a larger piece of land (cf. Penwill, pp. 15-18). Christian view of both types of Marriages In traditional thinking, ancestors are an essential link in a hierarchical chain of powers stretching from this world to the spirit world. Insofar as African traditional religion can be defined by specific religious actions, the cult of the ancestors is its most common and essential activity. In order to understand the importance of ancestors one must realize that in the African view, death is not thought to end human relationships. Rather, those who die enter the spirit world in which they are invisible. Deceased ancestors are integral to the traditional African social structure. In a culture where tribe, clan and family are of utmost importance, ancestors are the most respected members of the family. To be cut off from relationships with ones ancestors is to cease to be a whole person. Moreover, the ancestors sanction societys customs, norms and ethics. Without them, Africans are left without moral guidelines or motivation, and society is powerless to enforce ethics. However, the bible is clear on when should a union between a woman and a man end, in case of the ghost marriages. A wife is bound as long as her husband lives; but if her husband is dead, she is free to be married to whom she wishes, only in the Lord.( 1st Corithians 7:39). This outlaws the connection in matrimony between the dead and the alive. It also cautions against tokenism where one worships a dead person. It is through Christ that all that have died will rise again. However, woman to woman marriages of Ukambbani are not same with lesbianism. It was a place to take care of each other and involved no or little sexual intimacy. Christian teachings prohibit marriage and sexual activities between same genders but encourage people to take good care of each other. ( 1st John 3:16). It was love that guided these relationships. References Cited Cadigan, R. Jean (1998), Woman-to-woman marriage: practices and benefits in Sub-Saharan Africa. Comparative Perspectives on Black Family Life. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, vol 1 Dundas, C. (1913), History of Kitui, Journal of Royal Anthropological Institute, Vol 43 pp480-549. Kimanga, S. (6 October 2004), The ghost wives of Ukambani, All Africa News, http://allafrica.com/stories/200410060072.html, Accessed 18th July 2010 Lindblom, G., (1969.) The Akamba in British East Africa, 2nd Edition, New York: Negro University Press. Middleton, J. (1953), The Central Tribes of the North-Eastern Bantu, London: International African Institute. New International Version, Holy Bible Penwill, D.J., (1951), Kamba Customary Law, London: Macmillan and Company. Roy M,M. (2004), Akamba Marriage Customs. Nairobi: Roma Publishers Limited. Mueni, E. (2010) Personal interview (0726 43-0331) Terry, M. (2010) Personal Interview (0721- 738524)

Code Of Practice In Teaching And Learning

Code Of Practice In Teaching And Learning This assignment covers issues relating to current legislation and codes of practice in teaching and learning, as well as on the stages of the teaching/training cycle with emphasis on boundaries on some of the highlighted stages. The importance of record keeping in teaching and learning was also discussed in this assignment. I am currently working as an IT professional with the view of progressing onto more rewarding and better fulfilling profession as Mathematics cum ICT teacher/trainer in a lifelong learning sector. I decided to enrol for the Preparing to Teaching in Lifelong Learning Sector (PTLLS) programme at the North Hertfordshire College in preparing myself for the fulfilment of my career aspiration. LEGISLATION AND CODE OF PRACTICE IN TEACHING LEARNING The legislation and code of practice in teaching and learning are in place to act as guidelines and to protect the employees and learners in a typical lifelong learning sector. As a Tutor in the lifelong learning sector, it is my responsibility to be aware and adhere to the current legislative requirements and codes of practice as expected on my job role. Two examples of the current legislation relevant to teaching and learning are: Equality Act 2010 The key features of this act are, but not limited to the following: Aim at protecting disabled employees/learners and prevent disability discrimination as it provides legal rights for them in the area of employment, education, access to public facilities/services within a reputable lifelong learning institution. It provides rights to people (Carer or parent of a disabled person) not to be directly discriminated against or harassed because they have association with disabled people. It is unlawful for any education provider in the lifelong learning sector to treat a disabled employee/learner as less favourably for a reason related to their disability or fail to make reasonable adjustments to prevent them being placed at a substantial advantage. The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 The learning institution must make it mandatory for the teachers/trainers and learners to understand and comply with the Health and safety at work Act 1974. This act ensures that they put the safety and health of employees and learners first. As Trainer, I must minimize the risks associated with repetitive strain injury (RSI) amongst my learners. For example, highly repetitive movements such as typing on the keyboard consistently can lead to RSI; continuous usage of the VDU (visual display unit) can also lead to eye strain. Hence, I must ensure that learners go on short intermittent breaks. Other current legislations that are relevant to lifelong learning sector are: The Sex Discrimination Act (SDA) 1984 Special Education Needs and Disability Act (2001) The Health and Safety at work Act 1974 Freedom of Information and Data Protection Act 2005 Employment Equality (Religious or Belief )Regulations 2003 Racial and Religious Hatred Act 2006 Human Rights Act 1998 Apart from the aforementioned current legislative requirements, there are also codes of practice that I have to adhere to as a teacher/trainer in a lifelong learning sector. Codes of practice, (CoP) are lower level documents that provide guidance. For example, the institute for learning (IFL) introduced a code of practice for teachers in the lifelong learning sector in 2008. The Code was developed by the profession for the profession and it outlines the behaviour expected of members for the benefit of learners, employers, the profession and the wider community. An example of the Code of practice that relates to teaching in a lifelong learning sector is the disclosure of criminal offence; as it is expected that any member to notify the institute as soon as practicable after cautioning or conviction for a criminal offence. STAGES OF TEACHING/TRAINING CYCLES The teaching/training cycle (as depicted below) can be described as a cyclic learning process that can continue indefinitely to facilitate successful learning experience. The teaching/training cycle can be joined at any point but needs to be followed through to be effective. The teaching/training cycle involves the following stages: Identifying needs Planning Delivering Assessing Evaluating The roles and responsibilities as well as the boundaries for each of the five stages of the teaching cycle in a lifelong learning sector are as highlighted below: IDENTIFYING NEEDS This stage is about finding out the needs of the institution as well as that of the learners. Roles Responsibilities To accommodate the specific needs of the learners e.g. provision of specialised equipment when needed, adequate provision for the disabled learners should in case of any accident/fire alarm, permitting learners to observe their religious obligation. The need to understand their leaning styles as well as providing the right tools, textbooks and any other materials needed to enhance their learning experience. Boundary To need to gain the qualification that are requisite for the course that one intended to teach PLANNING This phase involves preparing the suitable delivery resources that can facilitate conducive learning environment. Roles Responsibilities To identify the learning outcomes and thereby ensuring the provision of value-added learning services Ensuring that the outcomes of each session must be specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time bound (SMART). To ensure that the specifications that were outlined in the schemes of work are addressed in the lesson plans this can be achieved by preparing the appropriate learning resources and also by including a variety of teaching and learning activities, dynamics and assessment methods. Boundary Physical contact with distressed pupil should appear normal and natural. Adhering to the ethos of the profession by maintaining high quality training, thereby guarantying that development and progression of the learner is being achieved. DELIVERING Roles Responsibilities To conduct the learning effectively by valuing and caring for the learner This is can be achieved by delivering the sessions based on the session plan that has already puts into consideration the various learning styles. To create a positive environment that fosters learning and keep the learners motivated Achieved by showing by demonstration, using teaching aids, giving out clear instructions and checking understanding among the learners regularly. Boundary Appropriateness of the teacher/learner relationship by ensuring that the learners do not know all about you and your life despite the fact of the need to be open, friendly and supportive. Knowing where to refer learners to such as assessment support for diagnosis of Dyslexia and other learning difficulties, Learning services for support with finance as well as knowing the procedures and where/who to escalate disruptive behaviour. Physical contact while demonstrating to the learner should not be misinterpreted. ASSESSING Roles Responsibilities To assess the learners during and at the end of the session in order to ensure they have gained the skills and knowledge needed to achieve their qualification Achieved by using any of the different types of assessment such as the Initial, Formative (quizzes and group discussion) or Summative (an examination that counts towards a qualification) assessments. To give constructive feedback and ensuring that Internal and External Verification (IV/EV) are carried out. Boundary No favouritism for any of the learners during assessment. EVALUATING This stage deals with getting feedback from the learner in order to reflect on ones teaching style and delivery. Roles and Responsibilities To obtain feedback from the learners in form of the course evaluation questionnaires in order to improve on ones teaching pedagogy and assist in future professional development. To evaluate the effectiveness of the program. Why keep records? Records are mainly kept for the following reasons: To let awarding bodies, employers and other stakeholders know This in terms of quality assurance is related to Internal/External verification as well as Internal/External moderation. Monitoring of progress and performance Helps tutors plan, monitor and review learners progress allows the trainer to monitor the effectiveness of his/her teaching and learners progress in relation to targets. To provide written feedback and guidance to learners. It is also the duty of the trainer to keep attendance records of the learners for health and safety reasons (evacuation in case of fire) and also for punctuality. To make the teaching/training work much easier. The reasons enumerated above are basically for legal reasons and also to support the teaching/training cycle. The stakeholders of these records are, but not limited to the following: Teachers/Trainers Awarding Bodies Employers Students Supervisors Ofsted Parents/Guardians/Sponsors Internal/External Verifiers Paper based and Computer records Paper based records Pros Less likely to be accessed by unauthorized user. Information update does not require any special skills. Cons Prone to lots of human errors due to differing terminologies, illegibility and misspelling. Disaster issue: can easily be lost or destroyed during fire or flood incident. Computer records Pros eliminate handwriting errors and offer spell checking ability. are cost efficient, because they eliminate expenses associated with stationeries, printing, other office supplies. Faster access to information and less space is required with regard to physical storage. Cons Privacy concerns: Personal information can be dispersed into the wrong hands. Data access problem: loss of power or technical glitches. This assignment has covered the various stages of the teaching/training cycles as well as the current legislation and the ethos of the profession in the teaching and learning sector. The needs for keeping records were also highlighted. WORD COUNT: 1585 words